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Distinguishing heat from temperature; scales and the triple point.
PV = nRT unifies P, V, T for an ideal gas.
Gas pressure arises from molecular collisions with the container walls.
Temperature is a direct measure of average molecular kinetic energy.
Energy conservation: heat in equals internal-energy change plus work done.
Heat flows spontaneously only from hot to cold (Kelvin–Planck / Clausius).
Quantized energy E = hf to resolve the UV catastrophe.
Damping shrinks amplitude; driving at natural frequency causes resonance.
KE and PE swap but their sum stays constant; total energy ∝ A².
Spectral classes (OBAFGKM) and the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram.
Main sequence to red giant to white dwarf / neutron star / black hole.
Recessional velocity proportional to distance; redshift.
Origin of the universe, CMB, and the age estimate.